This paper reviews the published articles on eTourism in the past 20 years. Using a wide variety of sources, mainly in the tourism literature, this paper comprehensively reviews and analyses prior studies in the context of Internet applications to tourism. The paper also projects future developments in eTourism and demonstrates critical changes that will influence the tourism industry structure. A major contribution of this paper is its overview of the research and development efforts that have been endeavoured in the field, and the challenges that tourism researchers are, and will be, facing.
Examining the structural relationships of destination image, tourist satisfaction and destination loyalty: An integrated approach
The objective of this study was to offer an integrated approach to understanding destination loyalty by examining the theoretical and empirical evidence on the causal relationships among destination image, tourist attribute and overall satisfaction, and destination loyalty. A research model was proposed in which seven hypotheses were developed. The empirical data was collected in a major tourism destination in the state of ArkansasEureka Springs. A total of 345 questionnaires were returned and the data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). The results supported the proposed destination loyalty model: (1) destination image directly influenced attribute satisfaction; (2) destination image and attribute satisfaction were both direct antecedents of overall satisfaction; and (3) overall satisfaction and attribute satisfaction in turn had direct and positive impact on destination loyalty. The theoretical and managerial implications were drawn based on the study findings, and recommendations for future researchers were made.
Place attachment, identity and community impacts of tourism : the case of a Beijing hutong
A significant literature exists on the impacts of tourism on local communities. This paper examines this issue with reference to the impacts of tourism on the residents of Shi Cha Hai hutong in Beijing, but does so with reference to theories of place attachment or place identity. It therefore addresses two gaps in the literaturenamely, (a) a comparative lack of empirical evidence on community impacts of tourism in Mainland China and (b) the absence of debate in the tourism literature about place attachment. The study involved both quantitative and qualitative methods, but this paper primarily concentrates upon the results derived from the quantitative study. It was found that, in general, concerns about heritage outweighed perceived advantages from economic development, and the role of heritage in place attachment is duly discussed. Additionally, a structural equation model is suggested whereby attitudes toward tourism are based upon attitudes toward heritage, tourism as a source of potential employment, length of residency and perceived intrusiveness of tourism, all of which impact on a sense of place identity. The findings from these tests raised issues about the role of government and self-efficacy in place identity in a Chinese environment.
Creative destruction and the water town of Luzhi, China
The model of creative destruction describes the evolutionary process of small communities whose development has occurred around the commodification of heritage. According to the model, the desire to accumulate capital drives investment in the production and sale of heritage. These investments tempt the post-modern consumer to search for a nostalgic past and the resulting consumption of heritage provides entrepreneurs with profits for reinvestment. The creation of a commodified landscape will ultimately result in the destruction of the original valued small-town or rural atmosphere. In this paper, the model is applied to Luzhi, a typical water town in China. It was found that the model generally applies to tourism development in Luzhi, although some modifications, particularly the inclusion of the roles of government, are required to reflect the nature of Chinese society.
Perceptions of organizational structure in the hospitality industry: Consequences for commitment, job satisfaction and perceived performance
The discussion about characteristics of organic and mechanistic organizational modes and their effects has a long history within organizational writing and research. The mechanistic mode has its roots in traditional bureaucratic organizations with autocratic leadership, where managers are given a great responsibility to run the organization. Research in the hospitality field indicates that traditional leadership styles are dominant. Research also indicates that the industry has employees who have high-quality values, are highly motivated and seek learning possibilities, and thus may be looking for more open, organic organizational modes in which to work. This study investigates the tension between organic and mechanistic organization forms in the hospitality industry and the relationships of both to individual employees' commitment, job satisfaction and performance.
The experience and effects of organizational modes are investigated in 54 hotel units with 734 managers and employees. The findings indicate that managers' and employees' perceptions of their work environments are different; employees find the organization to be less organic. The experience of both organic and mechanistic organizational modes is positively associated with subjective performance evaluation, commitment and job satisfaction. Interaction effects are also analyzed, and suggest that only when a well-structured mechanistic organizational form is present will organic organizational forms be beneficial. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to previous and future hospitality research.
Selective marketing for environmentally sustainable tourism
The natural environment represents the main resource for many tourism destinations and tourists are increasingly interested in spending their vacation in unspoilt natural areas. Consequently, destination managers are under increased pressure to implement ecologically sustainable practices. Selective targeting of tourists has been proposed as one approach to sustainable destination management, but the feasibility of this approach remains untested. Therein lies the contribution of this study. Results from a survey of 1000 Australians indicated that market segments based on past environmentally friendly behaviour at the destination represent distinct groups with respect to psychographic, behavioural and socio-demographic personal characteristics. These explanatory variables contributed substantially to explaining pro-environmental behaviour.
It was concluded that selective target marketing represents a feasible complement to current sustainable tourism management techniques which focus on tourists at the destination who may not necessarily be interested in protecting the local environment.
Resident perception of the impact of limited-stakes community-based casino gaming in mature gaming communities
The purpose of this research is to assess the impacts of Colorado's community-based, limited-stakes casino gaming after 12 years of operation. Current residents' perceived impacts, benefits, and support of community development due to gaming were examined in the three Colorado gaming communities of Black Hawk, Central City, and Cripple Creek. Results of the study suggest that as gaming development has evolved, residents of these gaming towns have continued to reflect the underlying tenets of social exchange theory in their assessment of gaming. Perception by residents of positive gaming impacts significantly influenced residents' perceived benefits and these positive benefits also had a positive effect on residents' support for gaming. Findings of the study concluded that regardless of the life cycle stage of a gaming community, social exchange theory was still valid in explaining the relationships among residents' perceived impacts, benefits, and support of gaming development.
Developing indicators for managing tourism in the face of peak oil
In its present form, tourism is dependent on the availability of oil and is comparatively oil-intensive. While forecasts for future tourism growth are optimistic, there is also increasing evidence about the imminence of a peak in oil production and the economic effects that this would cause. Globally and on a destination level it will be necessary to consider how a transition towards fossil-fuel free economies might look like for tourism.It is therefore timely and prudent for the tourism sector to consider its current oil requirements and derive indicators for monitoring its oil consumption. In particular, destinations need indicators of the amount of oil consumed by the various markets from which they receive visitors. New Zealand is used as an example for assessing the oil-intensity of its Top 10 countries of origin based on the 10 indicators. Overall, the least exposed markets for New Zealand with respect to oil are Australia, China, Singapore, and Taiwan, although a more detailed analysis would be required for markets that display very heterogeneous travel behaviour. Among the indicators, eco-efficiency is particularly important as it allows comparison of resource inputs with economic outputs.
Developing a multidimensional and hierarchical service quality model for the travel agency industry
This paper develops a comprehensive model measuring service quality in the travel industry based on an extensive literature review and qualitative and empirical research. Following Brady and Cronin's [2001. Some new thoughts on conceptualizing perceived service quality: A hierarchial approach. Journal of Marketing 65(July), 34-49] conceptualization, we propose a multidimensional and hierarchical model of service quality. In this model, service quality is a third-order construct which is composed of several dimensions and subdimensions. Our findings show that customers' perceptions of service quality of travel agencies consist of three primary dimensions: personal interaction, physical environment and outcome, which are defined by seven subdimensions: conduct, expertise, problem solving, equipment, ambient conditions, waiting time and valence. Our model has important implications for the measurement of service quality in this specific industry as well as for the development of valid measures of quality performance in the context of services.
Testing take-up of academic concepts in an influential commercial tourism publication
Many independent travellers read and rely on the Lonely Planet® destination guidebooks. In 2006, the company published two global selections which effectively define its perspectives on concepts such as adventure, cultural and ecotourism, responsible tourism and triple-bottom-line approaches. By analysing the content of these volumes, we can test whether information reaching individual tourists is congruent with relevant theoretical constructs. Broadly, it is: but it is less precise, comprehensive or up to date than published research, and relies more on example than synthesis. In addition, Lonely Planet has a strong emphasis on social aspects, reflecting the concepts of responsible tourism or community ecotourism rather than the environmental concerns associated with ecotourism more strictly defined. Opportunities such as this, to analyse the affects of academic tourism research on commercial tourism publishing, are relatively rare.
Tourism and conservation: The effects of track proximity on avian reproductive success and nest selection in an open sanctuary
While tourism may provide economic benefits for conservation projects, this relationship is unsustainable if visitors reduce the viability of local ecosystems through the disturbance of wildlife. Tiritiri Matangi Island, in New Zealand, encourages tourism in order to fund its ongoing species' recovery and habitat restoration programs, yet the impact of this tourism on the local wildlife is currently unknown. We examined nest site selection in open nesting forest birds, and the reproductive success and nest box selection of the endangered cavity-nesting stitchbird or hihi Notiomystis cincta, relative to their proximity to public walking tracks. Birds did not avoid nesting near walking tracks and there was no difference between the reproductive parameters of hihi nesting in areas close to public pathways and those in areas where the public had no access. The general population trends of all species monitored on the island suggest that any negative effects posed by tourism are minor and are currently outweighed by the benefits it generates. However, such a relationship is not guaranteed, and ongoing monitoring of tourism impacts on the conservation values of the island is encouraged.
Sensation seeking and tourism: Tourist role, perception of risk and destination choice
Sensation seeking (SS) is a personality trait associated with the need for novelty and stimulation and has been linked to tourist behavior. Tourist role, perceptions of risk associated with travel to particular regions of the world, and international travel experience were investigated in relation to SS and gender. Survey data were collected from 290 US young adults. Although males were higher in overall SS, gender was not a significant predictor of tourist role or international travel experience. However, SS was related to tourist role, with those higher in SS choosing explorer and drifter roles. SS was not related to perceptions of risk. Both high and low sensation seekers perceived risk similarly. However, those higher in SS were more likely to have traveled internationally and to have traveled to regions of the world rated as riskier. The findings provide empirical support for the proposition that personality traits may influence travel styles and destination choices.
The relative importance of large mammal species for tourism in Amboseli National Park, Kenya
Marketing for tourism in Kenya mostly revolves around the big five charismatic large mammals. However, it is not known if these are in fact the species tourists seek and prefer to see, or what other species are important when the big five are absent. This study investigated the large mammal interests of tourists in Amboseli National Park. Tourist interests were determined by tracking tourist vehicles and observing for which animals they stopped, the duration of each stop, and which animals were ignored. We developed five criteria for assessing the relative importance of large mammals: (i) length of viewing, (ii) vehicle crowding, (iii) stopping on every encounter, (iv) proportion of stops per species, and (v) the relative tourism importance rank index that weighed viewing to availability. This study found that tourists were interested particularly in the big cats and other unique large mammals, but interest was not confined to these species. Other animals attracting interest were cheetah, waterbuck, lion, hippopotamus, giraffe, spotted hyena, baboon, warthog and elephant. We propose that marketing for Amboseli should focus on the large mammals that tourists actually prefer and highlight the viewing potential of these mammals within the park. This should also be emulated such that each protected area in Kenya develops its own list of attractive animals for tourists.
Financial portfolio approach to optimal tourist market mixes
This study applied a financial portfolio theory to estimate optimal market mixes to minimize the instability of inbound tourist market demand. An empirical analysis was applied to inbound tourists to Taiwan. The results shed light on diversification in tourism market and offer tourism authorities and policy-makers explicit guidelines for risk management in the destination planning process. Specifically, using optimal mixes with various return/risk options can facilitate a more stable pattern of arrivals from foreign countries. To achieve the Doubling Tourist Arrivals Plan, introduced by the Taiwanese government in 2002, the tourism authorities should take the high-return/high-risk option and shift available resources to Japan. More policy implications are provided to guide tourism authorities and policy makers
Estimating fishing and hunting leisure spending shares in the United States
We apply a bivariate censored demand system to estimate hunting and fishing trip-related spending shares in the United States using data from off-site surveys. The approach considers fishing and hunting destination decisions and includes respondents who were inactive, i.e., did not hunt or fished in a particular season. The statistical significance of correlation coefficient parameter supports the use of a joint (e.g., bivariate) rather than separate (e.g., univariate) decision modeling process for fishing or hunting share equations. Most individual characteristics are statistically significant as explanatory variables. Respondents holding recreation licenses tended to spend significantly more on recreation than those without licenses. All own-price and cross-price elasticities are statistically significant and suggest that hunting and fishing are complements. The results also suggest that the popularity of hunting may decline as the population ages.
HRD in tourism: A role for government?
Government's engagement with tourism and in the development of the sector is widely accepted but academic debate about the form and level of such involvement is limited. This is particularly the case when specific facets of state engagement, relating for example to support for human resource development (HRD) in tourism, are concerned. The purpose of this paper is to explore the substantially neglected role of the state and its agencies in creating an enabling environment for effective HRD within tourism, through policy and planning as well as the delivery of actual HRD initiatives. In this paper, we briefly address the contested role of government in economic development and, in particular, in HRD. We address the nature of tourism as a sector within the economy and identify its salient features in terms of the key themes in this paper. The role of human resources in enabling tourism businesses, destinations and countries to operate effectively and competitively in the contemporary global economy is addressed and the paper considers the impact that tourism's defining structural and operational characteristics have on the role of people. Finally, building on the experience of the Irish Republic over the past 40 years, we will consider whether government and its agencies can play a useful role in guiding policy and delivering programmes that act to enhance the quality and productivity of people in the delivery of products and services to guests within tourism and, if they can, how this role can best be defined and operationalised.
Robust and alternative estimators for better estimates for expenditures and other long tail distributions
A 2006 Tourism Management article proposes using specific robust estimators to determine better estimated means for long-tail distributions; that is for skewed distributions with valid large responses heavily influencing the mean. Getting better estimates matters because long-tail distributions occur frequently for amounts and quantities. In addition, long-tail distribution sample means and totals can be so variable using those prompts concerns. However, low variability robust estimates of means and totals can be badly biased. Therefore, a focus of this paper is obtaining relatively low variability estimates that are not too biased. Real data are used to illustrate attributes of long-tail distributions. Results show some robust estimators suggested for producing better estimates are badly biased and therefore not better. Three ways of obtaining lower variability estimated means and totals that are not too biased are discussed. Practical and research implications of the ideas presented and of results obtained are discussed.
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